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Tracking learner engagement in the L2 classroom with experience sampling 査読国際共著国際誌

ハヨ・レンダーズ、ブラッドフォード・リー、ユアン・ボンナー

Research Methods in Applied Linguistics 2 ( 2 ) 100052 - 100052 2023年5月

Learner engagement is a major predictor of success in L2 acquisition (Hiver et al., 2021). It is therefore important to be able to measure and track engagement levels over time. This may provide theoretical insight into the conditions (both internal and external to the learner) in which engagement is more likely to occur, as well as offer implications for pedagogical practices to create such conditions. However, current research on L2 engagement suffers from a number of shortcomings: 1) Much of it is carried out in highly controlled research settings and lacks ecological validity, 2) Scaling, for example by increasing the number of research contexts or participants, is often impossible, 3) Current methods are often highly intrusive, for example requiring learners to interrupt learning activities in order to respond to questions, 4) Many studies are of short duration and thus unable to capture variation over time, and, 5) Many studies only investigate small student populations in a single environment. To overcome these shortcomings, we designed a mobile application for use by teachers in class to record L2 engagement levels through experience sampling, a method used to collect data on learner experiences in-the-moment. In this article we describe the application, the process by which we validated the instrument, and demonstrate its usefulness as a research and pedagogical instrument based on a 1-year pilot study.

Auditory precision hypothesis-L2: Dimension-specific relationships between auditory processing and second language segmental learning 査読国際共著国際誌

斉藤一弥, マグダレーナカッチリカ, 鈴木田優衣, カッチャペトロバ, ブラッドフォードリー, アダムティエルニー

Cognition 229 ( Dec 2022 ) 105236 2022年8月

Growing evidence suggests a broad relationship between individual differences in auditory processing ability and the rate and ultimate attainment of language acquisition throughout the lifespan, including post-pubertal second language (L2) speech learning. However, little is known about how the precision of processing of specific auditory dimensions relates to the acquisition of specific L2 segmental contrasts. In the context of 100 late Japanese-English bilinguals with diverse profiles of classroom and immersion experience, the current study set out to investigate the link between the perception of several auditory dimensions (F3 frequency, F2 frequency, and duration) in non-verbal sounds and English [r]-[l] perception and production proficiency. Whereas participants’ biographical factors (the presence/absence of immersion) accounted for a large amount of variance in the success of learning this contrast, the outcomes were also tied to their acuity to the most reliable, new auditory cues (F3 variation) and the less reliable but already-familiar cues (F2 variation). This finding suggests that individuals can vary in terms of how they perceive, utilize, and make the most of information conveyed by specific acoustic dimensions. When perceiving more naturalistic spoken input, where speech contrasts can be distinguished via a combination of numerous cues, some can attain a high-level of L2 speech proficiency by using nativelike and/or non-nativelike strategies in a complementary fashion.

Listener engagement: The missing link in research on accented speech 査読国際誌

ブラッドフォード　リー

International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching 2022年3月

Reverse linguistic stereotyping (RLS) is a process whereby a speaker’s perceived group membership triggers differential perception of aspects of their speech. RLS has been suggested to cause drops in intelligibility and recall, though why perception of a non-existent accent can negatively affect listening outcomes has not been sufficiently elucidated. The current study suggests an explanation may lie in differential levels of engagement among listeners. A sample of 430 Japanese university students listened to a short speech from either a speaker of Chinese Pronunciation of English or Received Pronunciation and rated them on aesthetics, comprehensibility, perceived intelligibility, engagement, and recall. Multiple linear regression suggested that only engagement served as a significant predictor to recall, though the other variables all had significant indirect effects when engagement was included as a mediating variable. These results indicated that listener engagement is a key variable which may help improve our understanding of accented speech perception.

The effects of perception- vs. production-based pronunciation instruction 査読国際共著国際誌

ブラッドフォード　リー、ルーク　プロンスキー、斉藤一弥

System 88 ( 2020 ) 102185 2019年11月

While research has shown that provision of explicit pronunciation instruction (PI) is facilitative of various aspects of second language (L2) speech learning (Thomson & Derwing, 2015), a growing number of scholars have begun to examine which type of instruction can best impact on acquisition. In the current study, we explored the effects of perception- vs. production-based methods of PI among tertiary-level Japanese students of English. Participants (N = 115) received two weeks of instruction on either segmental or suprasegmental features of English, using either a perception- or a production-based method, with progress assessed in a pre/post/delayed posttest study design. Although all four treatments groups demonstrated major gains in pronunciation accuracy, performance varied considerably across groups and over time. A close examination of our findings suggested that perception-based training may be the more effective training method across both segmental and suprasegmental features.

Reimagining Language Learning: AI-Driven Innovations for Engagement and Growth 招待

ブラッドフォード　リー

Technology in Language Teaching and Learning 6 ( 3 ) 102773 2025年5月

Artificial intelligence (AI) is redefining the language education industry, offering innovative solutions that enhance learner engagement, foster autonomy, improve learning outcomes, and more. This special issue explores the transformative impact of AI-driven technologies across diverse educational contexts, focusing on their applications in fostering communicative competence, ethical integration, and multimodal learning. Collectively, the thirteen articles included here also examine how AI tools can help address traditional pedagogical challenges, such as limited access to authentic communication, exam-centric curricula, and disparities in instructional quality. They highlight AI’s ability to personalize learning experiences, provide immediate feedback, and augment human interactions while preserving the essential role of educators. Other themes include strategies for tailoring AI tools to diverse linguistic and cultural contexts, fostering digital literacy and agency among learners, and developing robust evaluation frameworks for measuring AI’s long-term impact. By synthesizing insights from these contributions, this special issue sets the stage for future research, calling for ethical, inclusive, and adaptable implementations that unlock AI’s transformative potential while addressing its inherent challenges.

Exploring the Potential of Artificial Intelligence for Instruction in Pragmatics 査読

ブラッドフォード・リー、ダニエル・クック

Technology in Language Teaching & Learning 6 ( 3 ) 1 - 16 2024年10月

A Survey of Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion in TESOL 査読

ブラッドフォード・リー、デール・ジェフリー

PanSIG Journal 2023 142 - 150 2024年5月

TESOL（Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages）機構は2021年6月、この分野のあらゆる側面でDEI（多様性、公平性、包摂性）を高めることを目的としたイニシアチブを開始した。その現状を調査するため、本研究では、性別、年齢、勤務地、民族など幅広い顔ぶれの101人の現・元講師を対象に調査を行った。その結果、57.4％がTESOLの求人に応募する際に何らかの差別を感じたと回答し、60.4％が就職後も差別を受け続けたと報告するなど、体験はさまざまであることがわかった。参加者はまた、こうした経験が、自分自身やこの業界、教育実践についてどのように感じているかに影響を与えたかについても振り返った。

Monitoring engagement in the foreign language classroom: Learners’ perspectives 査読国際共著国際誌

ブラッドフォード・リー、ハヨ・レンダーズ、ユアン・ボンナー

Languages 9 ( 2 ) 53 2024年1月

Over the last three years, we have engaged in the development of a web‑based mobile application called Classmoto that uses the Experience Sampling Method (ESM) to measure cognitive, behavioral, and emotional engagement in near real‑time, with minimal disruption to the teaching and learning experience. The current study implemented Classmoto in an intact university language class in a Japanese university for an entire semester. We focused on learners’ experiences of using the app for two purposes: (1) to determine its face validity, and (2) to identify any constraints on and benefits from its practical application in an authentic pedagogic context, from the learners’ perspective. The results show that the instrument was able to measure the three sub‑domains of engagement, as designed. In addition, participants praised the ESM for (a) giving them an opportunity for self‑reflection, and (b) enabling the instructor to react to the students’ feedback instantaneously, with no negative feedback reported.

Does TESOL teacher motivation matter? Values vs. rewards 査読国際共著国際誌

リー　ブラッドフォード、ブロードブリッジ　ジェームズ、パーク　ヒュンスック、島田美織、フリーマン　ランディー

More than words: Teaching for a better world. KOTESOL Proceedings 2022 21 - 33 2022年10月

This study sought to explore language teachers’ values related to, and rewards gained from, their teaching jobs and careers. Responses to a modified version of the instrument used in the Kassabgy et al. (2001) study were obtained from 368 in-service instructors spanning the globe and analyzed by factor analyses. As in Kassabgy et al., intrinsic motivation was found to be central to reported feelings of job satisfaction and motivation, which were positive overall despite disparities between values and the realities of the job. However, slightly different factors and loadings were found, namely, a trend away from relationships with coworkers. One hypothesis is that the development of social networking in the past 20 years may have been an important influence.

Effects of perceived race on comprehensibility, intelligibility, and accentedness ratings 査読

ブラッドフォード　リー、ジャスティン　ベイリー

In P. Ferguson, & R. Derrah (Eds.), Reflections and New Perspectives. JALT. 2021 ( 1 ) 251 - 257 2022年8月

Reverse linguistic stereotyping (RLS) is the phenomenon whereby listeners’ speech perception is altered by information (or assumptions) about a speaker (e.g., gender, age, social class, ethnicity, nationality). However, while listeners tend to downwardly appraise speakers’ accents and comprehensibility when they perceive them to be of a different language community, past research has generally relied solely on Likert scale data. The current study suggests that qualitative investigation is also necessary to validly interpret raters’ responses. After collecting ratings of accentedness, comprehensibility, language proficiency, and intelligibility from 223 Japanese university students listening to a Japanese speech under a matched-guise, students reported what factors influenced their ratings. Listeners rated the speech of the Caucasian guise as significantly more accented. A key finding was that while comprehensibility ratings were equal, they were qualitatively different. Caucasian guise members cited pronunciation significantly more than the Asian-guise group, who reported grammatical and lexical factors as informing their rating decisions.

Assumptions of speaker ethnicity and the effect on ratings of accentedness, comprehensibility, and intelligibility 査読国際誌

ブラッドフォード　リー、ジャスティン　ベイリー

Language Awareness 2022年6月

While listeners tend to downgrade speakers’ accent and comprehensibility when they perceive them to be from a different language community—a process known as reverse linguistic stereotyping (RLS)—research has generally relied solely on quantitative data such as Likert scale ratings. The current study sought to extend the analysis further by investigating the reasons which informed raters’ decisions. A sample of 210 Japanese university students (six groups of n = 35) were asked to listen to recorded speeches by native Japanese speakers. In a matched-guise design, the groups were either shown photos of a Japanese, Caucasian, or Southeast Asian male, and asked to provide ratings of accentedness, comprehensibility, and intelligibility. They were then asked to report what factors influenced their comprehensibility ratings. In line with previous research, listeners rated non-Japanese guises as significantly more accented than the Japanese one, though differences in intelligibility were non-significant. A key finding was that while comprehensibility ratings were statistically comparable, the rationales given were qualitatively different. Groups who viewed the Caucasian or Southeast Asian photographs cited pronunciation issues significantly more than the Japanese group which reported grammatical and lexical factors as the reasons behind their downgraded ratings.

Facemask occlusion’s impact on L2 listening comprehension 査読国際誌

ブラッドフォード　リー、エドウィン　ハート

Speech Communication 139 ( 2022 ) 45 - 50 2022年4月

Wearing a facemask impacts oral communication as it is both a barrier to the acoustic signal and occludes nonverbal cues such as lip movements and facial expressions. However, while past studies have suggested that these factors do not cause significant impediments to comprehension among speakers of the same first language, the current study investigates the impact facemasks have in the context of second language learners. N = 192 participants were divided into three groups of n = 64 and asked to listen to an 89 s speech. To isolate the effects of visual cues on listening comprehension, the same audio recording was used for all experimental groups. Condition One was a video of a speaker with no mask. Condition Two was a video of the same speaker wearing a mask. Condition Three was an audio recording. The significant finding was that participants in the second (masked) condition scored significantly lower on subsequent comprehension quizzes than the other two. Implications to language instruction during the COVID-19 pandemic will be discussed.

Writing medium’s impact on memory: A comparison of paper vs. tablet 査読国際誌

ブラッドフォード　リー

Technology in Language Teaching & Learning 3 ( 2 ) 51 - 66 2021年12月

Studies comparing writing media typically compare different modes of writing (e.g., keyboard typing vs. writing, smartphone tapping vs. writing, etc.). The current study sought to investigate the cognitive outcomes of a more direct comparison: tablet- versus paper-based writing. Thirty-two speakers of L1 English were tasked with memorizing 20 Japanese kanji (stroke orders, Japanese readings, and English translations). Ten kanji were practiced (10 times each) on paper; the other 10 were practiced on an iPad. The kanji that were practiced on paper were more likely to be correctly translated into English at both the post- and delayed posttest, though Japanese scores were statistically equal. Of most intrigue was that while both groups were written with equal accuracy at the posttest, only the kanji practiced on paper showed a significant increase at the delayed posttest (after a period of 24 hours). The results of exit questionnaires indicated that the participants were divided on their preference of writing medium but were unanimous in their agreement that tablets should have a place in modern classrooms. One significant finding is that participants acknowledge the difficulty of tablet-based writing but conclude that what is necessary is more practice – not the avoidance or abandonment of the technology.

Analyzing writing fluency on smartphones by Saudi EFL students 査読国際共著国際誌

ブラッドフォード　リー、アクメッド　アル　カティーブ

Computers and Composition 62 ( Dec 2021 ) 102667 2021年10月

The proliferation of smartphones has required the advent of an entirely new system of input, distinct from both handwriting and computer-based typing. This input method, tapping , has largely been ignored by researchers to date, perhaps due to the misconception that tapping is mechanically and cognitively equivalent to typing. Therefore, while the typing-writing contrast has been well researched, very little is known about the dynamics of using a smartphone for composition. The current study investigated how the medium used affected writing fluency, as operationalized by transcription speed. A transcription task was carried out by 150 Saudi university students, both on paper and by smartphone, in either their first language (Arabic) or their second language (English). Composing by smartphone was slower for both groups, but only reached statistical significance under the second language condition. While these findings suggest that smartphones may not be ideal for classwork, follow-up surveys revealed that students remained positively disposed towards their use in spite of their experience. Implications such as the students’ willingness to compromise speed for accuracy (e.g., spellcheck) indicate that teachers should try to find ways to incorporate smartphone use while being cognizant of the potential pitfalls.

Rural Japanese students’ sentiments regarding Japanese teachers of English 査読国際誌

ブラッドフォード　リー、ジャスティン　ベイリー

In P. Clements, R. Derrah, & P. Ferguson (Eds.), Communities of teachers & learners. JALT. 2020 ( 1 ) 145 - 151 2021年8月

英語は単一ではなく無限の種類があり、それらは総称して「世界英語（複数形）」と呼ばれている。これまでに発表された日本に関する研究では、学生が標準的なアメリカン・イングリッシュを好むという報告が圧倒的に多く、ジャパニーズ・イングリッシュは軽蔑の対象とされてきた。しかし本論はこのような結果は研究場所（主に東京周辺）とサンプルの選択方法（主に英語またはコミュニケーション専攻の学生）が均一的であるため、サンプリングバイアスの影響を受けていることを指摘した。日本の地方在住の非英語専攻の学生を対象とした筆者たちによる先行研究では、ネイティブの英語教師を好む学生と日本人教師を好む学生の間に統計的な違いは見つからなかった (Lee & Bailey, 2020)。この一連の調査を受けて、本論では過小評価された集団の感情に関する定性的調査の結果を報告した。日本人の英語教師に対する学生の好意的な感情の背後には、効果的なコミュニケーション、語学学習戦略への関心、そして安心感という要因があることがわかった。

Flipped classrooms in the age of remote learning 査読

ブラッドフォード　リー

福井工業大学研究紀要 ( 51 ) 114 - 121 2021年4月

The flipped classroom methodology is a student-centered teaching style which inverts the traditional order of instruction. Lectures or lessons which introduce new material and concepts are conducted outside of class before synchronous classroom sessions. This allows the synchronous sessions to immediately dive into the material with no preamble, often involving student-centered, active learning tasks which are thought to develop learner autonomy and agency. The current qualitative study sought to investigate 169 Japanese university students’ prior levels of experience with this teaching style and discover their cognition towards it after experimenting with it for a full semester. Results found that 36.7% of students had some degree of prior experience in this learning style, and that 70.4% of students felt that it was somewhat, or very effective as a learning style. Students’ comments, both in favor of and against the methodology, are presented and discussed.

Tracking students’ academic motivation longitudinally 査読

ブラッドフォード　リー

福井工業大学研究紀要 ( 51 ) 122 - 132 2021年4月

Academic motivation is one of the most important factors which influences the degree of success a student will experience in achieving their academic goals. The current study represents the second phase of a longitudinal study which tracks a group of Japanese university students as they progress through their four-year college education. Following precursor research, 532 participants were given a Japanese version of the Academic Motivation Scale, which measures motivation for academic pursuits in seven scales (three types of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, plus amotivation), based on the self-determination theory of motivation. Results indicated that, in line with results from the first phase of the study, students remained largely motivated by intrinsic factors. However, one intrinsic factor was shown to slightly decrease, while one extrinsic factor slightly increased, indicating a slight trend toward extrinsic motivation. Data and motivational profiles for students who dropped out between Phases One and Two are reported, though the sample size (n = 11) was too small to produce sufficient statistical power for analysis.

Comparing writing vs. smartphone tapping speed 査読国際誌

ブラッドフォード　リー

Teaching with Technology 2020: Selected Papers from the JALTCALL 2020 Conference 1 78 - 90 2021年4月

COVID-19が世界を緊急リモートティーチングモードに移行させるにつれ、多くの教師は、オンラインまたはコンピューターを介した言語学習活動の設計においてほとんどまたはまったく経験がないことに苦労しています。テクノロジーの使用が学習のプロセスだけでなく結果にもどのように影響するかを理解することが不可欠です。特に日本では、18歳から34歳の成人のスマートフォンの所有率が2018年に96％を超えたため（Pew Research Center、2019）、多くの生徒がスマートフォンを使用して、学校の学習管理システムや課題（モバイル学習など）にアクセスしています。したがって、現在の研究では、スマートフォンでの「タップ」と手書きの転写速度の違いを調べることにより、さまざまな書き込みメディアが単純な書き込みタスクの実行にどのように影響するかを解明しようとしました。合計176人の参加者を3つのグループ（L1英語、英語で書く、L1日本語、日本語で書く、およびL1日本語、英語で書く）に分けて、作業時間を記録しました。 L1-Englishグループの違いは見つかりませんでしたが、L1-Japaneseグループは片っ方が遥かに速かったことがわかりました（日本語ではタップ、英語では手書）。教育的影響としては、講師がモバイルデバイスを使用してタスクを作成する際に、言語学習者が抱える可能性のある非常に困難に気づく必要があることが挙げられます。

Comparing factual recall of tapped vs. handwritten text 査読国際誌

ブラッドフォード　リー

Acta Psychologica 212 ( 2021 ) 103221 2020年11月

As a result of the rushed transition to remote teaching because of the COVID-19 pandemic, teachers have suddenly been forced to design mobile-assisted language learning (MALL; m-learning) activities, mostly for the first time in their careers. However, it is imperative that instructors realize that the challenge is greater than simply converting paper-based assignments into a digital format. There has been very little research done examining the cognitive effects of writing on a smartphone, compared to writing on paper. The current study therefore sought to examine how recollection of content differed depending on the medium used for notetaking. A population of 138 Japanese university students of English-as-a-Foreign-Language (EFL) were asked to transcribe a short text, either by paper or by smartphone, and then quizzed on the content immediately afterwards. Students who wrote the text by hand were found to have significantly greater recollection of the content compared to those who had ‘tapped’ on smartphones. These results follow precursor research which indicated that Japanese students compose significantly slower on their phones in English (Lee, 2020b), and wrote significantly less in writing tasks (Lee, 2019, 2020a) than handwriting counterparts.

The effects of proficiency and textual enhancement technique on noticing 査読国際誌

ブラッドフォード　リー

System 96 ( 2021 ) 102407 2020年11月

Textual enhancement (TE) refers to manipulation of a text to make specific linguistic targets more perceptually salient. Typically, the purpose of TE is to implicitly draw learners’ attention to target forms, as it has been postulated that noticing the gap between one’s interlanguage and the target is a first step towards acquisition (Smith, 1991, 1993). This study investigated the effects of two forms of TE on the acquisition of the English third-person singular /~s/ and /~es/ forms among 382 Japanese university students. Two grammaticality judgement tasks in a pre/posttest design indicated small, but significant, increases among the two experimental groups compared to a comparison group (unenhanced text), and a control group (no treatment). The relative effect of language proficiency was also examined, with students of lower proficiency in each experimental group showing greater improvement over their control groups than their counterparts of higher proficiency. Post-interviews revealed that participants generally had not been successful at noticing the target form, and that they were predominately engaged in processing the readings for content, not form. Overall results suggest that TE is slightly effective, but it is argued that its effects may be enhanced by combining it with training students in effective learning strategies

Enhancing listening comprehension through kinesthetic rhythm training 査読国際誌

ブラッドフォード　リー

RELC Journal 53 ( 3 ) 567 - 581 2020年8月

Research has suggested that the type and frequency of learning strategies employed by successful listeners is greater than their less successful counterparts. Based on evidence that metacognitive strategies (e.g. listening-for-gist; inferring meaning) are more effective than cognitive ones (e.g. word-for-word translation), this study sought to measure the effect that rhymical training had on the listening comprehension acuity of 313 Japanese university students. The theoretical basis was that rhythmical priming assists learners parse the input based on prosody and identify salient words by stress. Small but significant increases were observed among students who were rhythmically trained, compared to a comparison group that received explicit instruction but no rhythm training, and a “true” control group that received no treatment. These results extend the feasibility of input enhancement, rhythmic priming, and perception-based instruction beyond the traditional grammar and pronunciation instruction domains.

Japanese tertiary-level students' cognition of World Englishes 査読

ブラッドフォード　リー、ジャスティン　ベイリー

福井工業大学研究紀要 ( 50 ) 243 - 253 2020年5月

Estimates vary widely as to the number of people who study English globally, from Kachru and Nelson’s (2006) estimate of 700 million, to Beare’s (2019) figure of over 1.5 billion. However, these statistics are somewhat misleading as English is not a single entity, but rather a multitude of different dialects of the language (e.g., American English, British English), more accurately described as World Englishes (WE). The current study investigated the cognition of WE among 473 Japanese university students, revealing that while a majority of the participants knew that different varieties of English existed (n = 366; 77.4%), they could not describe in detail what those differences were (n = 351; 74.2%). Among those who could name some differences, pronunciation was cited the most often (n = 99; 81.1%), followed by a small number noting grammatical differences (n = 2; 1.6%), and none suggesting syntax or pragmatic factors such as appropriateness as being different among varieties of WE. When asked their preference of English instructor, citizens of inner circle countries (e.g., the USA, UK, Australia, or Canada) were rated the highest (M = 3.48), followed closely by Japanese English teachers (M = 3.42). Theoretical rationale and pedagogical implications are discussed.

Differences in Japanese college students' academic- and L2-motivation 査読

ブラッドフォード　リー

福井工業大学研究紀要 ( 50 ) 254 - 266 2020年5月

Japan continues to expand its federally funded English initiatives, with English now a compulsory subject starting from the 4th grade and continuing through to senior high school. While motivation for learning English has been heavily researched, little has been done to understand the underlying academic motivation among the population. As understanding the general landscape would allow for new insights into English-specific research, this study investigated first-year undergraduate students by applying the Academic Motivation Scale to an entire incoming freshman class (N=606). It was found that intrinsic motivation matrices were slightly positive overall (M=5.07 on a 7-point Likert scale), which contrasts with precursor research suggesting that students at this university were predominantly extrinsically motivated towards the study of English (Lee, 2017). Slight but significant differences were detected, depending on the participants’ academic major, gender, and residential status (i.e., international or domestic).

A qualitative analysis of three textual enhancement techniques 査読

ブラッドフォード　リー

福井工業大学研究紀要 ( 50 ) 268 - 276 2020年5月

The concept of noticing is a key tenet of second language acquisition (SLA). Teachers have long been using every method available to get their students to pay attention, in the hopes of increasing the likelihood that their lessons will ‘stick’, a term known as intake in SLA. The current study investigated the efficacy of three textual enhancement (TE) techniques at drawing N = 168 Japanese university students’ awareness to the desired language feature, the first step towards noticing. Results indicated that contrary to predictions, participants were only moderately able to identify the target of instruction (47.6%; 74.4%; 58.3%, respectively). These results carry significant implications for not only language teachers, but for SLA researchers who have thus far been baffled as to why TE research has often yielded conflicting results.

Smartphone tapping vs. handwriting: A comparison of writing medium 査読国際誌

ブラッドフォード　リー

EuroCALL Review 28 ( 1 ) 15 - 25 2020年3月

Mobile-learning (m-learning), or mobile-assisted language learning (MALL), has been the object of a great deal of research over the last twenty years. However, empirical work in this area has largely failed to produce generalizable conclusions due to variation in methodology, target feature, and task-type (Burston, 2014, 2015). As schools in Japan begin to join the growing number of classrooms worldwide using mobile-based assignments, this study examined how Japanese EFL students’ writing task production differed depending on writing medium (i.e., handwritten on paper vs. tapped on a smartphone). Writing samples were collected from N = 1,449 participants, divided into smartphone- or paper-based groups, across a spectrum of English proficiencies. Handwritten submissions were found to be significantly longer than those composed on a smartphone (p < .001, d = .54), with differences being more pronounced for learners of higher proficiency than lower ones. Significance and effect sizes steadily dropped from p < .001, d = .66 for advanced learners to p = .168, d = .38 for beginners. These results indicate that care must be taken in designing m-learning activities, and that students must be given adequate training in smartphone-input skills (i.e., tapping) and time to acclimate before using such tasks for high-stakes assessments.

Japanese tertiary students' access to smartphones and their feelings regarding their use in the EFL classroom 査読

ブラッドフォード　リー

福井工業大学研究 ( 49 ) 216 - 224 2019年11月

When institutional stakeholders contemplate the introduction of a new technology into the classroom, they often are concerned with the uses and functions of the tech and sometimes overlook a very basic aspect: students’ access and level of comfort using the technology required. This study was conducted to assess the level of access students at a small private engineering university had to smartphones, a technology that stakeholders believe will be used to access and complete assignments on a new asynchronous learning site the university is rolling out in the upcoming academic year. While the results showed that nearly 100% of students surveyed (N=225) did have access to the requisite tech, only 23.56% of respondents (n=53) indicated that they were excited about using them for coursework. The reasons students gave for their willingness or hesitation are presented, and the implications of the introduction of the portal site are discussed in terms of English education and general motivation. Some suggestions are also given of how to most effectively address students’ concerns.

A case study of writing task performance: Smartphone input vs. handwriting 査読

ブラッドフォード　リー

福井工業大学研究 ( 49 ) 225 - 231 2019年11月

M-learning (mobile phone-based learning) is quickly becoming prevalent at educational institutions around the world. However, while there have been studies (though few and limited) examining the differences between typing on a computer vs. handwriting, there have been no similar studies investigating smartphone use. This is the first empirical study comparing performance on English writing tasks between the media of smartphones and handwriting, and also the first to investigate using different media for composition in a second language (L2). Writing samples submitted via both media were collected from 2 freshman English majors over a 14-week period and analyzed for word count. Results for both participants showed statistically significant decreases in production when using a smartphone to the effect sizes of d=-1.13 and -2.34, respectively. This is a significant result that educators should be cognizant of when assigning online tasks. Implications for the classroom and possible ways to mitigate the negative effects of smartphone use are also discussed.

福井工業大学におけるコミュニケーション重視の英語教育の取り組み査読

入学直哉，小山政史，ブラッドフォードリー，サムトムソン

福井工業大学研究紀要 ( 47 ) 373 - 381 2017年5月

In 2013 Fukui University of Technology launched the SPEC (the Special Program for English Communication) program, which focuses on improving students’ communication skills in English. The main purpose of this program is to develop human resources who can be actively involved in international arenas after graduation. The first- and second-year students learn everyday conversations in English and the third- and fourth-year students learn business English or technical English depending on their interest. Besides the regular subjects, extracurricular studies and activities are provided for the students and they can immerse themselves in a favorable situation for English learning throughout their college life.
Key Words : 英語教育，SPEC，コミュニケーション能力

A Survey of Private Japanese University Students' Attitudes Towards English Education 査読

ブラッドフォード　リー

福井工業大学研究紀要 ( 47 ) 304 - 310 2017年5月

Motivation researchers have suggested a multitude of constructs, each of which propose that there are several forces residing within a person that drive them to do the things they do, all of which have varying implications when it comes to learning a second language. This study, following Dornyei’s L2 Motivational Self System construct of motivation, investigated a group of 85 university students in Japan, currently studying English. As part of a larger project using mixed methods and various angles of investigation, this study used qualitative measures (one-on-one interviews) to elicit personalized and individual responses from the participants. Upon analysis of the interview data, it was revealed that a plurality of the participants were motivated to learn English for reasons Dornyei calls the Ought-to L2 Self, i.e., they believed they should study to “meet expectations or to avoid possible negative outcomes” (Dornyei, 2010b, p. 80).
Key Words : TESOL, Second Language Acquisition, L2 Motivational Self System, Individual Differences

Investigating Language Proficiency and Learning Style Preference 査読

ブラッドフォード　リー、クリストファー　ピロット

福井工業大学研究紀要 ( 47 ) 289 - 295 2017年5月

Individual differences (ID) among language learners (e.g. language aptitude or motivation), are variables that are theorized to affect the degree of success one will have in acquiring a second language (L2). This study sought to add to the body of literature on learning style. 225 first year students (divided into two groups based on English proficiency) at a private Japanese university were surveyed to determine their preferred learning style(s). The data obtained were then examined in relationship to the two groups’ English proficiency to search for any statistically significant differences between the groups. It was found that the highest- and lowest-ranked learning styles (auditory learning and individual learning) were the same for both Group A (higher proficiency) and Group B (lower proficiency), but to a statistically significant degree of difference.
Key Words : TESOL, Second Language Acquisition (SLA), Learner Style, Individual Differences

Tertiary-level English Education in Japan: A Study on Motivational Factors 査読

ブラッドフォード　リー、クリストファー　ピロット

福井工業大学研究紀要 ( 47 ) 296 - 303 2017年5月

The complex processes involved in learning a second language include a multitude of cognitive and affective factors. One of these affective factors, motivation, has been suggested to be the most important element in learning, which influences the degree to which a second language will be acquired. This has made its study one of the most exciting and promising areas of research in second language acquisition over the past few decades. This study examined the motivations of a group of university students in Japan in regards to English education. Two groups (high and low proficiency) of first-year students (N = 85) were tested on four types of intrinsic motivation (interest in the English language, cultural interest, attitude towards learning English, and ethnocentrism). Correlational relationships were measured, with only ethnocentrism found to have a (small) statistically significant correlation with proficiency.
Key Words : TESOL, Motivation, Second Language Acquisition, Individual Differences

Analyzing the impact of visual aids on complexity, accuracy, and fluency in English L2 learners' discourse: a case study 査読

ブラッドフォード　リー

福井工業大学研究紀要 ( 46 ) 312 - 321 2016年6月

The design and implementation of tasks which will expand and develop students’ knowledge or ability to use a language is the fundamental function of the language instructor. Knowing how the design of the tasks will affect the learners’ output can offer us valuable insights which will in turn help to create focused activities in accordance with the instructor’s goals. This study examines the effect that introducing a visual aid, a common practice in many language classrooms, has on the language production of two higher intermediate learners of English.

Bilingualism’s Influence on Cognitive Ability 査読

ブラッドフォード　リー

福井工業大学研究紀要 ( 45 ) 352 - 358 2015年7月

The present research into bilingualism focuses on the aspect of executive control (EC) and how it can relate to cognitive ability. Specifically, bilingual individuals face EC challenges such as mental-set shifting tasks, conflicting-response suppression, and information or task monitoring processes continually while producing or interpreting language. Current research seems to indicate that this constant stimulus gives bilingual individuals a slight advantage in EC processes compared to their monolinguals peers; developing earlier and performing at a higher rate as the subject advance in later life.

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